Multilingual glossary of key terms in language education

Some researchers adopt the term “M1/L2 signers” for individuals who are learning a second sign language versus “M2/L2 (second modality second language) signers” for those who are learning their first sign language. In addition to standard L2 effects, this second group might be subject to additional effects of learning language in a new modality. (Chen Pichler 2012: p. 676)

Communication that occurs through a device or machine, such as online communication.

The first language(s) of the majority of the population in (a defined region of) a country – in many cases this/these will also be the national/official language(s) of the State and the language(s) of instruction in schools.

“The first language(s) of the majority of the population in (a defined region of) a country” – in many cases this/these will also be the national/official language(s) of the state or a region.

The first language(s) of the majority of the population in (a defined region of) a country - in many cases this/ these will also be the => national/ official language(s) of the state and the =>language(s) of instruction in schools. "The special role of the majority language is due to the combination of several features that increase the societal importance of the language in such a way that nobody living in this society can manage without it, even if it is not his/her first language. <br> It should be noted that minorities form local majorities in many cases: these can either be formed by several minorities in combination or by one single very concentrated minority."

Language both constructs and interprets the meaning of content in the curriculum. The act of teaching a particular part of the curriculum content can be understood as a communication process, in which meaning realised by the use of language is the most salient.

Likewise, for students to learn any part of curriculum content means, first and foremost, to make sense of the language used by the teacher and other students in classroom activities, and in the teaching materials involving both spoken and written language. Thus learning curriculum content on the one hand cannot be accomplished effectively without learning and using the language that communicates the meaning of the content, while at the same time curriculum content learning can be used as a powerful means for language development (cf. EUCIM-TE project and IALT).

Note:

European Core Curriculum for Mainstreamed Second Language Teacher Education (EUCIM-TE), www.eucim-te.eu.

European Core Curriculum for Inclusive Academic Language Teaching (IALT)

To get a survey on a situation.

To get information on how a wide range of language associations are organised, how they support their own networks of members and what impact do they have on policy reform supporting multilingualism.

Structured arrangement of an ensemble of elements, in form of a double entry table usually comprising lines and columns. A policy implementation matrix, also called an action plan matrix, shows how each item in a policy will be implemented in practice.

The process of developing knowledge and understanding by drawing on all linguistic resources.

Combines several elements such as information literacy, media literacy and visual literacy.

Knowledge of how information is produced and disseminated, ability to create new forms of messages on various media (e-mails for example) and to understand how these messages are generated and perceived on the chosen platforms.

Media literacy includes the ability to create new forms of messages on various media (emails for example) and to understand how these messages are generated and perceived on the chosen platforms.

Communication facilitated through technological or digital means, such as online platforms or tools.

The role of an individual in facilitating communication and understanding between people from different cultures.

In the field of language education, mediation has been described as a language activity in its own right by the CEFR (2001): “In both the receptive and productive modes, the written and/or oral activities of mediation make communication possible between persons who are unable, for whatever reason, to communicate with each other directly. Translation or interpretation, a paraphrase, summary or record, provides for a third party a (re)formulation of a source text to which this third party does not have direct access.” (p.&nbps;14)

For the Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education (2016) “In modern language teaching, presented as an emblematic example, mediation may be defined as an interface between comprehension and production. The strong emphasis on both the plurilingual and the cultural dimension in foreign language mediation activities means that mediation is an important part of any curriculum for plurilingual and intercultural education.” (pp. 11-12)

Further information

The Companion Volume to the CEFR (2020) stresses that cross-linguistic mediation “involve[s] social and cultural competence as well as plurilingual competence” (p. 91). Given the variety of situations in which mediation is mobilised and the complexity of the ways in which it is carried out, the descriptor scales are presented here in three groups, which implies a broader definition:

“'Mediating a text' involves passing on to another person the content of a text to which they do not have access, often because of linguistic, cultural, semantic or technical barriers. […]

'Mediating concepts' refers to the process of facilitating access to knowledge and concepts for others, particularly if they may be unable to access this directly on their own. […]

'Mediating communication' aims to facilitate understanding and shape successful communication between users/learners who may have individual, sociocultural, sociolinguistic or intellectual differences in standpoint.” (p. 91)

Mediation is one of the four modes of communication, it combines reception, production and interaction.

“[…] when we use language it is not just to communicate a message, but rather to develop an idea through what is often called ‘languaging’ (talking the idea through and hence articulating the thoughts) or to facilitate understanding and communication.” (CEFR CV, 2020: 35)

Mediation is one of the four modes of communication alongside reception, production and interaction. Mediation can happen within one language ‐ for instance summarising and paraphrasing texts  – or involve different languages or dialects (cross-linguistic mediation). The Companion Volume of the Common European framework of reference for languages operationalizes mediation into: mediating communication, mediating concepts and mediating a text. Mediation is a broad concept that involves different dimensions (e.g. relational, cognitive, emotional, cultural, pedagogic) and aims to build bridges and connections.

Mediation is one of the four modes of communication alongside reception, production and interaction. Mediation can happen within one language – for instance summarising and paraphrasing texts – or involve different languages or dialects (cross-linguistic mediation).

We mediate, in formal and informal contexts, when there is need to make information accessible to a friend, a colleague, a family member, a tourist, a boss, an audience in a conference, and generally to parties who do not grasp this information or have difficulties to understand due to linguistic or/and cultural differences. The CEFR-CV operationalizes mediation into: mediating communication, mediating concepts and mediating a text. Mediation is a broad concept that involves different dimensions (e.g. relational, cognitive, emotional, cultural, pedagogic) and aims to build bridges and connections.

Mediation combines receptive, productive and interactive activities; mediation activities involve mediating texts, concepts and/or communication itself.

The ability to interpret and convey information between different languages or modes of communication.

The ability to interpret and convey information between different languages or modes of communication.

“Mediation strategies are the techniques employed to clarify meaning and facilitate understanding. As a mediator, the user/learner may need to shuttle between people, between texts, between types of discourse and between languages, […] depending on the mediation context” (Council of Europe 2020: 117). An effective cross-linguistic mediator is one who is able and trained to activate a number of strategies in order to deal with source language information and make himself/herself understood in another language. S/he may need to summarize texts, to paraphrase, to condense, to reorganize source information.

In either cross-linguistic or intra-linguistic mediation, the mediator acts as an intermediary between texts, languages, discourses, cultures. S/he transfers/relays information from one text to the other in order to achieve a communicative purpose (e.g. to advise, to suggest, to inform etc.). S/he operates as a facilitator, a meaning negotiator, a meaning-making agent especially when s/he intervenes in situations which require linguistic and intercultural reconciliation, settlement or compromise of meanings. The mediator’s task is to bridge or minimize communication gaps between texts, languages and users of different languages. Specifically for cross-linguistic mediation, with which the METLA project is concerned, “the mediator is viewed as a plurilingual social actor actively participating in the intercultural communicative event, drawing on source language content and shaping new meanings in the target language” (Stathopoulou, 2015: 3).

A cognitive and communicative activity which involves, on the one hand, seeking to reduce any possible tension between several individuals or groups of individuals possessing different cultural references and, on the other, promoting mutual knowledge and understanding of these references to foster cohesion and co-operation between these individuals or groups.

See Cultural mediation

Social actor who shares, distributes or even evaluates or comments on some digital information or creations amongst the members of his/her networks.

Refers to the channel through which communication occurs. This could be spoken language, written text, sign language, or digital platforms.

Short open questions or entries about experiences written in a research journal.

A method of action research in which short notes are written on the selected aspect of teaching, for example after class.

“Awareness and management of one’s own thought.” (Kuhn & Dean 2004: 270)

Pertaining to guided reflection about learning.

Refers to the awareness and control of one’s cognitive processes during language learning or use. This includes planning, monitoring, and evaluating how to approach language tasks, such as reading comprehension or language production. Metacognitive strategies help learners regulate their understanding, problem-solving, and learning of language.

Metalinguistics is concerned with the analysis of facts and data of the language with the aim to investigate the structure of the language, its history as well as its implications (social, literary, cultural, philosophical, etc.)

The ability to consciously reflect on the nature and use of language.

This term denotes the activity of describing the functioning of language and the terminology used for that purpose. Terms such as syntax, morphology, phonology, lexical field etc. belong to the field of metalinguistics.

Particular components of language proficiency that contribute to overall communication competence. These can include specific skills like recognizing sounds, understanding sentence structure, using appropriate intonation, or decoding contextual clues.

A person who has moved to a place (usually a country) different than the one s/he used to live before and has been settled in the new place for a certain period usually (more than 12 months).

This change of residence is based on choice, rather than the constraints and threats that explain certain population movements (refugees, exiles). “Migrant” is the most encompassing term, while immigrant refers to the entry in the host country, and emigrant marks the movement outward from a country. Depending on the country, there are different terms for migrants. In France, the word “immigrant” (see this entry) competes with the word “migrant”.

Official definition at the European Level/Examples

In the global context, a person who is outside the territory of the State of which they are nationals or citizens and who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used to migrate. In the EU context, a person who either:

(i) establishes their usual residence in the territory of a Member State for a period that is, or is expected to be, of at least 12 months, having previously been usually resident in another Member State or a third country; or

(ii) having previously been usually resident in the territory of a Member State, ceases to have their usual residence in that Member State for a period that is, or is expected to be, of at least 12 months.¹

Language which may be spoken by a majority in a section of a national territory, which may have official status there, but may not necessarily have official language of legal status.

This term denotes a language spoken in a region or country by a community of people who do not form the majority of the population. This language is part of the cultural heritage of the region or country. The importance of taking care to preserve and promote the use of any minority language is emphasised in the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

A failure to communicate effectively or accurately.

Occurs in performance when a user/learner (as might be the case with a native speaker) does not bring his or her competences properly into action. Compare this with ‘error’ in which although the language produced is incorrect, it is based on a logical process.

Refers to educational experiences in new contexts that are explicitly aimed at enhancing the development of the plurilingual and intercultural (and professional) skills of students. The length of learning mobility activities typically ranges from a few days or weeks for primary and secondary school learners to a longer period, such as one or two university semesters in the case of young adults attending teacher training colleges or universities. Mobility can refer not only to cross-border contacts, but also to cooperation within one country, especially in the case of multilingual countries.

Refer to the different channels or systems used to convey language, such as spoken, written, signed, or visual communication. Modalities also encompass the mode in which language is produced and received, influencing how meaning is expressed and understood.

All languages currently used.

Refer to the different channels or forms through which communication is expressed. Common modes include spoken language, written language, visual representations (like gestures or images), and multimodal combinations (such as combining speech with gestures). Modes influence how meaning is constructed and conveyed.

In education, the term “module” refers to an instructional segment of a certain length with a durable learning impact. It usually comprises a series of (teaching) units. It has a final summative assessment.

The checking of a process, action or product. In the context of the ELP it can span the entire life history of a project, from initial implementation to the various evaluative measures taken to check its effectiveness in practice.

The European Ministers of Education recommend that the governments of member states, in harmony with their education policies, monitor the dissemination and impact of the ELP and report their findings to the Council of Europe regularly, and at least once every three years.

Various tools can prove useful during the monitoring process
a) conference notes
b) portfolio notes
c) teacher journals
d) checklists
e) rating scales
f) student journals
g) student anecdotal records
h) student profiles
i) classroom log books
j) questionnaires

Questionnaires should also be used for both qualitative and quantitative research for the purpose of future dissemination.

This term refers to all the regular patterns which may be observed in the phonology, morphology, syntax and pragmatic and sociolinguistic uses of a particular language.

See Functioning of language

The desire or incentive a learner has to learn a foreign language, resulting in a greater or lesser effort to do so.

Describes the use or presence of multiple languages in communication, often within a single person, community, or context. In linguistics, this term is used to study how individuals or societies manage multiple languages and the dynamics of language interaction.

Refers to the use or knowledge of multiple languages, either by an individual or within a community. Multilingualism includes phenomena such as code-switching, language mixing, and how speakers navigate and manage multiple languages in their everyday interactions.

"This leads to the distinction between plurilingualism as a speaker’s competence (being able to use more than one language) and multilingualism as the presence of languages in a given geographical area: there is a shift, therefore, from a perspective focusing on languages (a state may be referred to as mnolingual or multilingual) to one that focuses on speakers.” (Beacco Jean-Claude and Byram Michael 2003: Guide for the development of language education policies in Europe: from linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Draft 1, 8)
“In recent years, the concept of plurilingualism has grown in importance in the Council of Europe's approach to language learning. Plurilingualism differs from multilingualism, which is the knowledge of a number of languages, or the co-existence of different languages in a given society. Multilingualism may be attained by simply diversifying the languages on offer in a particular school or educational system, or by encouraging pupils to learn more than one foreign language, or reducing the dominant position of English in international communication.” (Council of Europe 2001: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Learning, Teaching, Assessment, 4)
"This leads to the distinction between plurilingualism as a speaker’s competence (being able to use more than one language) and multilingualism as the presence of languages in a given geographical area: there is a shift, therefore, from a perspective focusing on languages (a state may be referred to as mnolingual or multilingual) to one that focuses on speakers.” (Beacco Jean-Claude and Byram Michael 2003: Guide for the development of language education policies in Europe: from linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Draft 1, 8)
“In recent years, the concept of plurilingualism has grown in importance in the Council of Europe's approach to language learning. Plurilingualism differs from multilingualism, which is the knowledge of a number of languages, or the co-existence of different languages in a given society. Multilingualism may be attained by simply diversifying the languages on offer in a particular school or educational system, or by encouraging pupils to learn more than one foreign language, or reducing the dominant position of English in international communication.” (Council of Europe 2001: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Learning, Teaching, Assessment, 4)
“The resolution supported the view that the requirements of global and national participation, and the specific needs of particular, culturally and linguistically distinct communities can only be addressed by multilingual education. In regions where the language of the learner is not the official or national language of the country, bilingual and multilingual education can make mother tongue instruction possible while providing at the same time the acquisition of languages used in larger areas of the country and the world. This additive approach to bilingualism is different from the so called subtractive bilingualism which aims to move children on to a second language as a language of instruction.”
(Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO Education Position Paper 2003, p 17-18)" "As seen in the quotes above, the Council of Europe and the ECML distinguish between the terms “plurilingualism“ and “multilingualism“ from a sociological point of view. While plurilingualism is the competence of an individual being able to use different languages, multilingualism stresses the aspect of societies with members speaking different languages. As definitions are not clear-cut, discussions about plurilingualism and multilingualism are still going on. Therefore readers may find very different ideas about the term multilingualism. <br> Multilingualism can be seen as a normal state of any given society, even if the “modern” Europe through national states and languages tries to give the impression of monolingualism. Often people think of multilingual societies on other continents and forget that also Europe has a long history of multilingualism (cf. Braunmüller & Ferraresi (eds.) 2003). <br> Multilingual education aims at including pupils with many language backgrounds in one education system. Students shall have the possibility to develop their multilingualism, and not be forced in abandoning their mother tongue in favour for a majority language. As the Unesco points out, multilingual education can be necessary in very different situations: on the one hand there are many regions with the existence of many language groups that share education facilities, on the other hand many (especially urban) areas experience the effects of globalisation and where schools have to face the reality of sometimes up to 30 different languages in a classroom (Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO Education Position Paper 2003, 13)."

Multilingual education aims at including pupils with many language backgrounds in one education system. Students shall have the possibility to develop their multilingualism, and not be forced in abandoning their mother tongue in favour for a majority language. As the Unesco points out, multilingual education can be necessary in very different situations: on the one hand there are many regions with the existence of many language groups that share education facilities, on the other hand many (especially urban) areas experience the effects of globalisation and where schools have to face the reality of sometimes up to 30 different languages in a classroom (Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO education position paper, 2003, p. 13).

“Cummins has proposed the model of "Transformative Multiliteracies Pedagogy (TMP)" (Cummins, 2006) as an educational approach to help students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (CLD) to use their knowledge in their language spoken at home in order to improve their production in the target language (of schooling). Cummins describes the TMP in five basic principles. This is to promote:

1. The image of the learner as being intelligent, imaginative and with language resources.
2. The use of knowledge and linguistic and cultural resources of students and their communities.
3. The cognitive engagement and personal investment of each student.
4. Opportunities to allow students to build their knowledge, create literary and artistic works, and act on social realities through dialogue and critically.
5. The use of information technology and communication (ICT) as support for the construction of knowledge and literary and artistic works and the presentation of their work to various audiences through the creation of texts promote the development of multicultural identities ("identity texts").

The production of "identity texts" (identity documents) is central to the implementation of TMP. The projects that allow students to invest all their cultural and linguistic resources, function as a mirror reflecting the image of the pupil positively.”

Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world’s population.

A multilingual person, in a broad definition, is one who can communicate in more than one language, be it actively (through speaking, writing, or signing) or passively (through listening, reading, or perceiving).

Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1).

The presence of several languages in a given area or domain; it refers to plurilingual people as well as to monolingual persons with different languages living in a same area.

The coexistence of different languages in a given society.

“Multiliteracy is a meaningful social and collaborative experience where students can work together with and learn from their peers and more experienced mentors. Multiliteracy is determined by social and cultural conventions that can be used and adapted based on specific purposes, modes and audiences. Therefore, a multiliteracy-based curriculum […] prepar[es] students to analyse multiple forms of text, discourses […] in multiple contexts and modes for multiple pursposes and multiple audiences” (Goldini 2008: 67, after Kern 1995, 2000, 2004, 2005).

Multimodal activity: an activity that involves multiple modes of communication, such as visual, gestural, written, and spoken language.

Knowing how to construct meaning from a variety of elements, whatever the mode of communication: linguistic, sound, visual, gestural or spatial.

The use of different modes of communication, such as text, visuals, and audio, in teaching and learning activities.

Meaning-making and meaning-taking in social communication (including communication in school) make use of symbolic resources which include verbal as well as non-verbal (including gestures and bodily expressions) communication, visual/audio material, graphic representations and actions. In other words, communication is multi-modal.

Knowledge representation nowadays is in no way limited to written texts, it is multimodal, e.g. visual representations on paper and on the screen increasingly play an important role (Kress 2010). All content subjects have their ways of using multimodality and it is important that teachers are aware of the multimodal nature of classroom communication, and that students learn how to use the various modalities effectively. This should be an important part of teacher education and continuous professional development.

This term refers to the transmission of knowledge using various modes of representation – written texts, visual representations, sound etc. With multimodal representation, text, image, sound, etc. combine to create meaning that is not just an addition of separate modes, but the result of the interplay between them. Multimodal analysis thus means to analyse how text, image, sound etc. combine, rather than analysing them separately.