Please note: These definitions relate to this specific project. The same terms may be defined differently elsewhere.
action-oriented
Refers to an approach that views language learners as social agents who use language to perform tasks in real-life situations. The action-oriented approach focuses on practical communication skills and real-world applications of language, emphasizing the ability to accomplish specific tasks (e.g. making a purchase, or giving directions) rather than just learning grammar or vocabulary in isolation.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The action-oriented approach and the learner as a social agent”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Applying the CEFR Companion Volume scale of Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
action-oriented approach
Approach using authentic tasks embedded in a realistic, relevant and meaningful scenario – both in teaching and in assessment.
acts of speech
Verbal expressions used in communication.
affective nuances
Emotional or mood-related aspects of communication.
ambiguity
Refers to a situation where a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple possible interpretations or meanings. Ambiguity can be lexical (e.g. a word with multiple meanings) or syntactic (e.g. a sentence structure that can be parsed in different ways).
From a sociocultural perspective, ambiguity refers to situations where language or communication can be interpreted in multiple ways due to cultural, social, or contextual factors. In this view, ambiguity arises not just from linguistic structures (like words with multiple meanings or complex sentences) but also from differences in cultural norms, values, and expectations. For example, a phrase or gesture that is clear in one cultural context may carry different or unclear meanings in another, leading to misunderstandings or multiple interpretations.
analytic rating scale
A type of rating scale that breaks down language abilities into specific criteria for assessment.
assessment grids
Tables or charts that outline specific criteria and descriptors used for evaluation in language assessment.
asynchronous communication
Communication that allows participants to communicate at different times and does not require immediate responses, such as email or discussion forums.
background-specific
Refers to language or knowledge that is tailored to or assumes familiarity with a particular cultural, social, or situational context. Background-specific language often relies on shared assumptions or references that may be unclear to those without the relevant background knowledge.
backward design
Approach to course design where a teacher develops the assessment tasks based on the learning objectives and then develops tasks and activities for teaching and learning in line with the learning objectives and the assessment. (Richards, 2013)
can-do descriptors
Specific statements that describe what language learners can do at different proficiency levels, as outlined in the CEFR.
co-constructed
Refers to the way meaning is collaboratively built in a conversation. It highlights how participants in a dialogue contribute to developing ideas, responses, and interpretations, often building on each other’s statements to create shared understanding.
co-construction of meaning
The formulation of new meaning in the process of communication with other language users.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
code-switching
The act of shifting between different languages or language varieties within a conversation or communication context.
code-switching
Using different languages within a single communication act. Plurilingual individuals use their entire linguistic repertoire rather than switching between languages.
cognitive
Pertains to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using language. Cognitive linguistics studies how language is connected to human thought, focusing on how conceptual structures, memory, perception, and reasoning influence language use.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Introduction to mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
cognitive processes
Refers to the mental processes involved in language use, including perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. Cognitive linguistics, for example, explores how language reflects conceptual structures in the human mind and how language learning and processing are linked to these cognitive functions.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
cognitively
Refers to the mental processes involved in language tasks, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and comprehension. Cognitively demanding tasks require greater mental effort and attention.
collaborative discourse
Involves critical thinking, evaluation of arguments, and interaction among participants to build on or refute each other’s arguments to achieve their goals. It is characterized by collaboration and cooperation.
communicative
Relates to how language is used for effective communication. The communicative approach in language teaching, for instance, emphasizes functional and social language use, prioritizing meaning and interaction over rigid grammatical accuracy.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation strategies”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Applying the CEFR Companion Volume scale of Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
communicative needs
Language requirements necessary for successful communication in real-world situations.
competence
The ability to do something successfully or efficiently by applying one’s knowledge and skills.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
constructive alignment
A constructivist approach to language education that is applied throughout the curriculum, i.e. in teaching, learning and assessment.
“Constructive” reflects the constructivist view on learning, which underlines that meaning is not transmitted from the teacher to the learner, but the learners need to take an active role in the learning process; they need to be given tasks that allow them to construct meaning; “alignment” stresses that teaching methods and assessment tasks therefore need to be aligned with the learning activities in order to achieve the intended outcomes.
cultural awareness
Consciousness and understanding of one’s own culture and the cultures of others.
cultural context
The social, historical, and cultural background in which language and communication occur.
culturally bound gestural language
Gestures that have specific meanings within a particular culture or community.
curriculum design
The process of planning and organising the content, activities, and learning experiences in a course or educational programme.
deficiency perspective
Teachers focusing on what a learner is not (yet) able to do, i.e. focusing on errors.
dynamic profiles
Profiles that are not static but change over time based on life experiences and choices.
e-collaboration
Collaboration among individuals to accomplish a common task using electronic technologies.
European Language Portfolio (ELP)
Learners are invited to collect sample of their language productions and to self-assess their language proficiency using CEFR can do statements. The ELP is a tool designed to support learner autonomy.
field-specific
Refers to language, terminology, or discourse patterns that are uniquely associated with a particular academic, professional, or technical field. Field-specific language includes specialized vocabulary, concepts, and genres that are used within a specific domain and may require expert knowledge to understand.
formality
Refers to the degree of adherence to conventional language standards and norms, often shaped by context, social roles, and relationships. Language can range from highly formal (e.g. legal or academic discourse) to informal (e.g. casual conversation), with differences in vocabulary, tone, and structure.
formative assessment
Form of assessment that focusses on learning and learning processes and shapes the direction and content of further learning.
Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages) (2013), Glossary “ECML programme 2008-2011 ‘Empowering language professionals’”, p. 76, available at
www.ecml.at/Portals/1/20140130_Glossary_ECML%20MTP3_EmpoweringLanguageProfessionals_with%20index_FINAL.pdf, accessed 10 May 2019.
Also used in:
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Constructive alignment”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
forward design
Approach to course design where a teacher first identifies the learning objectives, then develops teaching and learning activities and at the end prepares assessment tasks. (Richards, 2013)
Richards Jack C. (2013), “Curriculum approaches in language teaching: Forward, central and backward design”, in
RELC Journal 44 (1), pp. 5-33.
Used in:
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Constructive alignment”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
four language skills
Listening comprehension, reading comprehension, oral production and interaction (“speaking”) and written production and interaction (“writing”) (focus on linguistic repertoire).
four modes of communication
Purpose or macro-function of communication, i.e. reception, production, interaction and mediation (focus on the function of an activity).
genre
Refers to categories of text or discourse that share similar conventions, structures, and communicative purposes. Examples of genres include news articles, academic papers, business reports, or casual conversations.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
genres
Categories of discourse or text that share specific conventions, purposes, and structures. Common genres include narrative, argumentative, academic, and journalistic texts.
glossing
The practice of providing brief explanations or translations of specific words or phrases in a text, often as annotations or footnotes. Glosses are commonly used to clarify unfamiliar terms, explain grammatical structures, or provide equivalents in another language, helping readers or learners understand the content more easily.
goal-oriented
Describes online interactions focused on achieving specific outcomes or objectives.
granular assessment
Detailed and specific evaluation of various aspects of language proficiency.
holistic rating scale
A type of rating scale that provides an overall assessment of a candidate’s language proficiency or performance.
idiomaticity
Refers to the extent to which language use adheres to the conventional, natural patterns of a language, often through fixed expressions and idioms. High idiomaticity means that the language used sounds natural, incorporating phrases that go beyond literal meanings.
intended (learning) outcomes
Specific statements that describe what students should be able to demonstrate as a result of their learning experiences (see also “learning objectives”).
interaction
Interaction involves two or more parties co-constructing discourse.
“Interpersonal interaction is considered to be the origin of language, with interpersonal, collaborative and transactional functions.” (CEFR CV, 2020: 70)
Council of Europe (2020),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors, Strasbourg, available at
https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The four modes of communication and the four language skills”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
intercultural competence
The ability to experience and engage with people, ideas, and experiences from different cultural backgrounds in order to understand and analyse them.
interculturality
The state or condition of interactions and relationships between different cultures.
interlinguistic mediation (cross-linguistic mediation)
Refers to the process of facilitating communication between speakers of different languages. Interlinguistic mediation involves interpreting, translating, or paraphrasing content across languages, while also considering cultural nuances and ensuring that the intended meaning is preserved. It extends beyond mere translation, focusing on helping interlocutors achieve mutual understanding across linguistic and cultural boundaries.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
interpersonal
Refers to communication that deals with social relationships and interactions between people. It involves expressing and interpreting attitudes, emotions, social roles, and relationships through language, including how people negotiate power, politeness, and rapport in conversation.
interpretation
Refers to the real-time oral or signed translation of spoken language between different languages, often done in settings like conferences or legal proceedings. Interpretation can be simultaneous (done as someone speaks) or consecutive (done after someone speaks).
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation strategies”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
intralinguistic mediation
Refers to facilitating communication within the same language by rephrasing, simplifying, summarizing, or adapting content for different audiences or contexts. Intralinguistic mediation can include actions like explaining complex concepts in simpler terms, adapting formal language for casual settings, or rewording specialized jargon for a general audience. The goal is to bridge gaps in understanding within the same linguistic community.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
jargon
Refers to specialized or technical vocabulary associated with a specific profession, field, or group. Jargon often includes terms that are difficult for outsiders to understand but enable precise communication among experts within the field.
learner agency
The learner takes an active role in the learning process.
learner autonomy
Independence. Learner autonomy refers to a student’s ability to set appropriate learning goals and take charge of his or her own learning.
Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), Multilingual glossary of key terms in language education, available at
www.ecml.at/glossaries.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Innovative aspects of the CEFR Companion Volume”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
learner autonomy
The learner is actively engaged in the planning and teaching, taking an active role in the decision-making processes and takes responsibility for their learning.
Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), Multilingual glossary of key terms in language education, available at
www.ecml.at/glossaries.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The action-oriented approach and the learner as a social agent”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
learning objectives
The objectives of the curriculum or syllabus, pre-defined by the institution, which describe what learners are supposed to be able to do at the end of the teaching and learning programme.
learning outcomes
Specific statements that describe what students should be able to demonstrate as a result of their learning experiences (see also “learning objectives”).
linguistic and cultural diversity
The variety of languages and cultures present in a given context or society.
linguistic awareness
The understanding and control of how languages are used and how they interrelate.
linguistic profile
The unique combination of languages, language skills, and experiences with languages that an individual possesses.
linguistic repertoire
A collection of linguistic abilities and skills possessed by an individual, which may include different languages at varying levels of proficiency.
machine-mediated
Communication that occurs through a device or machine, such as online communication.
mediated communication
Communication facilitated through technological or digital means, such as online platforms or tools.
mediating communication
The role of an individual in facilitating communication and understanding between people from different cultures.
mediation
Mediation is one of the four modes of communication, it combines reception, production and interaction.
“[…] when we use language it is not just to communicate a message, but rather to develop an idea through what is often called ‘languaging’ (talking the idea through and hence articulating the thoughts) or to facilitate understanding and communication.” (CEFR CV, 2020: 35)
Council of Europe (2020),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors, Strasbourg, available at
https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The four modes of communication and the four language skills”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
mediation skills
The ability to interpret and convey information between different languages or modes of communication.
mediation skills
The ability to interpret and convey information between different languages or modes of communication.
medium
Refers to the channel through which communication occurs. This could be spoken language, written text, sign language, or digital platforms.
metacognitive
Refers to the awareness and control of one’s cognitive processes during language learning or use. This includes planning, monitoring, and evaluating how to approach language tasks, such as reading comprehension or language production. Metacognitive strategies help learners regulate their understanding, problem-solving, and learning of language.
micro-skills
Particular components of language proficiency that contribute to overall communication competence. These can include specific skills like recognizing sounds, understanding sentence structure, using appropriate intonation, or decoding contextual clues.
miscommunication
A failure to communicate effectively or accurately.
modalities
Refer to the different channels or systems used to convey language, such as spoken, written, signed, or visual communication. Modalities also encompass the mode in which language is produced and received, influencing how meaning is expressed and understood.
modes
Refer to the different channels or forms through which communication is expressed. Common modes include spoken language, written language, visual representations (like gestures or images), and multimodal combinations (such as combining speech with gestures). Modes influence how meaning is constructed and conveyed.
multilingual
Describes the use or presence of multiple languages in communication, often within a single person, community, or context. In linguistics, this term is used to study how individuals or societies manage multiple languages and the dynamics of language interaction.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
multilingual
Refers to the use or knowledge of multiple languages, either by an individual or within a community. Multilingualism includes phenomena such as code-switching, language mixing, and how speakers navigate and manage multiple languages in their everyday interactions.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Introduction to mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
multimodal activity
Multimodal activity: an activity that involves multiple modes of communication, such as visual, gestural, written, and spoken language.
multimodality
The use of different modes of communication, such as text, visuals, and audio, in teaching and learning activities.
negotiation of meaning
Situation of interaction or collaboration where learners co-construct meaning.
online communities
Refers to groups of people who interact and communicate with each other through online platforms or virtual spaces.
online interaction
Communication activities carried out through digital means, such as chats, blogs, and video conferencing.
online writing
Written communication that is produced and transmitted through digital means.
paralinguistic
Non-verbal elements of communication that accompany speech and contribute to meaning. These include intonation, pitch, volume, speed, and gestures. Paralinguistic cues help convey emotions, attitudes, and nuances in spoken interactions.
paraphrasing
The process of restating the meaning of a text or spoken language using different words and grammatical structures while preserving the original sense. Paraphrasing is often used to simplify complex ideas, avoid repetition, or clarify meaning in communication or language learning.
paratextual
Non-verbal elements of communication that accompany the main text and contribute to meaning. These include things like:
- illustrations (photographs, drawings, etc.),
- charts, tables, diagrams, figures, etc.,
- typographic features (fonts, pitch, spacing, underlining, layout, etc.).
(CEFR, 2001: 90)
Council of Europe (2001),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 9, available at
https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Written interaction”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
partial competences
Profile of a learner’s language competences, where the level of proficiency may vary according to the individual skill. A learner’s proficiency may be uneven, i.e. showing a different level for different skills.
pedagogical approach
A method or strategy used in teaching and learning to achieve specific educational goals.
performance variables
Refer to factors that affect a speaker’s ability to produce language in real-time. These include pauses, hesitations, false starts, and repairs, which occur during spoken language due to processing demands, planning, or cognitive load. Performance variables distinguish between a speaker’s underlying competence (knowledge of language) and their actual performance (how they use language in practice).
phraseology
Fixed expressions, collocations, idioms, and commonly used word combinations in a language. They are word sequences that are conventionally used together and contribute to fluency, idiomaticity, and natural-sounding language use.
planning backwards
A term used in the CEFR Companion Volume, emphasizing the approach of starting with learners’ real-life communicative needs, describing the desired outcomes and designing teaching and learning activities accordingly.
pluricultural competence
The ability to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent, has experience of several cultures.
pluricultural identity
The sense of self and belonging that arises from being exposed to and engaging with multiple cultures.
pluricultural profile
An individual’s combination of linguistic and cultural competences, which may vary in degrees of proficiency and exposure.
pluricultural repertoire
The range of knowledge, skills, and experiences an individual has in relation to different cultures and languages.
pluricultural spaces
Environments where individuals from different cultures can interact and engage in intercultural communication.
plurilingual
Describes the ability to use multiple languages flexibly depending on context, often switching between languages or blending them as needed. Unlike multilingualism, which focuses on knowledge of multiple distinct languages, plurilingualism emphasizes dynamic and fluid language use across different linguistic repertoires.
plurilingual competence
The ability to switch between languages or possess different levels of knowledge in different language skills. It also involves using all of one’s linguistic knowledge or mediating between speakers of different languages without a common language.
plurilingual comprehension
Using one language or languages to approach the understanding of another language. It involves using different translations or linguistic resources to comprehend a text or communication.
plurilingualism
The concept of having knowledge or contact with multiple languages that interrelate and interact to build a person’s communicative knowledge.
pragmatic competence
The ability to use language effectively and appropriately in different communicative contexts.
pre-planning
Involves mentally organising and structuring what to say or write before engaging in communication. This strategy is common in tasks like speech preparation, essay writing, or structured conversations, where speakers or writers outline their ideas, select vocabulary, and plan the sequence of their discourse to improve fluency and coherence.
production
Spoken and written production, i.e. oral (“speaking”) and written production (“writing”).
“Production includes speaking, signing and writing activities.” (CEFR CV 2020: 60)
Council of Europe (2020),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors, Strasbourg, available at
https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The four modes of communication and the four language skills”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
proficiency perspective
Teachers focusing on what a learner can do, highlighting the capability of a learner, e.g. using can do statements.
real-life scenario
A situation that might occur in real life, i.e. learners are presented with a situation of interaction and mediation they might encounter in their professional, educational or personal context and in which they have to accomplish tasks in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action.
reception
Spoken and written reception, i.e. oral (“listening”) and reading comprehension (“reading”).
“Reception involves receiving and processing input: activating what are thought to be appropriate schemata in order to build up a representation of the meaning being expressed and a hypothesis as to the communicative intention behind it.” (CEFR CV, 2020: 47)
Council of Europe (2020),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors, Strasbourg, available at
https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The four modes of communication and the four language skills”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
redundancy
Involves the repetition or inclusion of information that may not be strictly necessary but enhances clarity, coherence, or emphasis. Redundancy can occur in speech (e.g. saying “repeat again”) and in writing to ensure that the message is clear.
registers
Refer to language variations determined by context, purpose, and audience. A register is characterized by specific choices in vocabulary, tone, syntax, and formality. For example, legal language, academic writing, casual conversation, and technical jargon are different registers, each suited to different communicative situations.
registers
Refer to variations in language use depending on context, audience, purpose, and social setting. Registers range from formal to informal, academic to conversational, and can include specialized jargons. For instance, the language used in a business meeting differs from that in casual conversation due to changes in vocabulary, tone, and structure.
relational
Refers to how language expresses relationships between entities, ideas, or people. This concept is often used in discussing relational grammar (how syntactic relations like subject and object are expressed) or in examining how language reflects social and interpersonal connections.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
reliability
The consistency and dependability of assessment results.
salient
Refers to features that are particularly prominent or noticeable within a linguistic context. Salient features can be phonological, syntactic, or lexical elements that stand out due to their importance, frequency, or distinctiveness in communication. Salient features can also be related to text organisation.
salient features
The most noticeable or prominent characteristics of a language, dialect, or speech variety. These could be specific phonological traits, syntactic patterns, or lexical choices that stand out in a particular linguistic context, helping to distinguish one form of speech from another.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Introduction to mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
scaffolding
Refers to the support provided to learners to help them achieve language tasks they would not be able to do independently. Scaffolding strategies include modelling language use, giving prompts, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and gradually removing support as learners gain competence. Scaffolding helps in both language acquisition and effective communication.
scaffolding
The term “scaffolding” is often used in the context of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes the role of social interaction and support in learning. Examples of scaffolding include providing students with prompts, asking leading questions, breaking complex tasks into smaller steps, and providing feedback and reinforcement.
self-assessment
Refers to the process by which learners evaluate their own language skills and progress. This can involve reflecting on abilities in areas such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing, often using rubrics, checklists, or goal-setting tools. Self-assessment encourages learner autonomy and helps identify areas for improvement, guiding personalized learning strategies.
self-assessment
Self-assessment is a judgement made by learners on their own performances, knowledge, strategies etc., imagining how well they would cope in a range of real-life settings.
A process during which students reflect on and assess the quality of their own work and learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, and identify strengths and weaknesses in their work.
Adapted from:
Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), Multilingual glossary of key terms in language education,
www.ecml.at/glossaries.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Constructive alignment”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
signposting
Refers to the use of explicit language markers to guide listeners or readers through a text or discourse. Signposts include phrases like “firstly,” “in conclusion,” or “on the other hand,” helping to organise information and improve coherence by signalling transitions and the structure of arguments.
social agent
Social agents are “members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action”. (CEFR, 2001: 9)
The learner as a social agent is considered to act “in the social world and exerts agency in the learning process”; language is seen “as a vehicle for communication rather than as a subject to study”. (CEFR CV, 2020: 28-29)
Council of Europe (2001),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 9, available at
https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97.
Council of Europe (2020),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume with new descriptors, Strasbourg, available at
https://rm.coe.int/common-european-framework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The action-oriented approach and the learner as a social agent”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Plurilingual aspects”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
sociocultural
Relates to how language is shaped by and reflects social and cultural contexts. It involves studying the relationship between language practices and cultural norms, values, and identities within a community, considering how social factors influence language use and variation.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Introduction to mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation strategies”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
sociocultural differences
Differences in social and cultural practices, norms, and values among different groups or societies.
sociolinguistic
Concerns the study of how language varies and functions in different social contexts. It explores factors like social class, gender, ethnicity, and age, examining how these factors influence language variation, language change, and patterns of language use within communities.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Introduction to mediation”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Mediation strategies”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
sociolinguistic competence
The ability to use language appropriately in different social situations and contexts.
summative assessment
It sums up attainment at the end of the course with a grade or, where there is
sufficient evidence, a CEFR level to which the grade corresponds.
Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages) (2007), IMPEL glossary – A glossary of European Language Portfolio (ELP) implementation terminology, available at
https://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/ELP_TT/ELP_TT_CDROM/DM_layout/Glossary/Glossary_E.pdf.
Also used in:
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Constructive alignment”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
syllabus
A plan or outline of the topics and content to be covered in a course.
synchronous communication
Communication in which participants interact in real-time, using a common medium or platform, and respond to each other immediately. Examples of synchronous communication include face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, video conferencing, instant messaging, and online chats.
syntactic
Relates to the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences, focusing on how words combine to form grammatically correct phrases and sentences. Syntax is a core area of linguistic study, analysing patterns like word order, sentence structure, and the hierarchical arrangement of elements within a sentence.
syntax
Refers to the set of rules that govern how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language. It involves the study of sentence structure, word order, grammatical relationships, and how different elements of a sentence relate to one another to produce meaningful expressions.
syntax
The branch of linguistics that studies the rules and structures governing how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It examines sentence construction, word order, and grammatical relationships, analysing how different elements are organised to convey meaning.
task-based approach
Language teaching and assessment based on authentic real-life tasks.
task, real-life task
“A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective.” (Skehan, 2003: 3).
“Tasks […] are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in tasks is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use. So task-based instruction takes a fairly strong view of communicative language teaching.”
(Skehan, 1996: 20)
Skehan Peter (1996), “Second language acquisition research and task-based instruction”, in Willis Jane / Willis Dave (eds.),
Challenge and change in language teaching, Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 17-30.
Skehan Peter (2003), “Task-based instruction”, in
Language Teaching 36, pp. 1-14.
Term used here:
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The action-oriented approach and the learner as a social agent”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
to co-construct knowledge / meaning
Students carry out collaborative tasks, draw upon different knowledge, skills and resources, discuss their findings and develop new ideas together.
transaction
Refers to an interaction or exchange of communication that has a clear, goal-oriented purpose. Typically, transactional language is focused on accomplishing a specific task or conveying information, like giving directions, making a request, or completing a business exchange.
transactional discourse
Language used for transmitting information, where the emphasis is on the message rather than the listener. It aims to communicate and ensure understanding, often associated with the transfer of information rather than maintaining social relationships.
transcode
Refers to converting information or text from one system of representation to another, such as changing language code (code-switching), converting written language into spoken form, or translating between languages. Transcoding often involves adapting content to fit the norms and structures of the target language use situation.
translanguaging
Having a linguistic repertoire that combines features from different languages and alternating between these languages to communicate strategically.
translanguaging
The use of multiple languages by plurilingual speakers to facilitate communication and effectively convey a message.
translation
Refers to the process of converting written text from one language into another while preserving the original meaning, tone, and style. In linguistics, translation studies explore how meaning is transferred across languages, addressing challenges like cultural equivalence, idiomatic expressions, and differences in grammar and vocabulary.
validity
The extent to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure.
varieties
Refer to the different forms of a language associated with particular regions, social groups, or contexts. Varieties can include dialects, sociolects, and registers, each characterized by unique phonological, lexical, syntactic, and stylistic features influenced by factors like geography, class, and situational use.
varieties
Refer to different forms or versions of a language used by particular groups or in specific contexts. These can include dialects, sociolects, idiolects, and regional or stylistic variations. Varieties differ in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and usage, reflecting factors like geography, social class, ethnicity, and context.
VLE (“virtual learning environment”)
A VLE (virtual learning environment) is a platform used in education to give access to educational content online and which functions as a virtual classroom where learners find resources for learning and can upload and share their products.
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development
Learning occurs when individuals interact with others who have more knowledge and skills. Vygotsky’s theory highlights the importance of social interactions and cultural context in shaping cognitive development and emphasizes the role of language in learning and thinking. Language and thought are intertwined and develop together.