The ability to observe and participate in new experiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary. It may involve varying degrees and combinations of aspects of social and communicative competence and linguistic knowledge.
Source: ECML resource website Sign languages and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2016-2019)
The ability to observe and participate in new experiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary. It may involve varying degrees and combinations of aspects of social and communicative competence and linguistic knowledge.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
Academic language is the type of language necessary to successfully participate in, comprehend, and communicate in cognitively demanding and context-reduced, age-appropriate activities (Himmele & Himmele, 2009[1]). It is not usually learned outside the classroom setting (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994[2]).
[1] Himmele P. & Himmele W. (2009), The language-rich classroom: A research-based framework for teaching English language learners, ASCD.
[2] Chamot A. U. & O’Malley J. M. (1994), The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New York.
Source: ECML resource website A roadmap for schools to support the language(s) of schooling (2016-2019)
The quality or state of being accountable, liable, or answerable; especially an obligation or willingness to accept responsibility or to account for one's actions.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
What has been learned in a course of instruction.
Achievement can be recorded in a variety of ways, but in particular, when using the European Language Portfolio (ELP), as levels of the Common European Framework of Reference, i.e. A1 to C2.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
The unconscious learning process that occurs when language is used in real situations, as opposed to formal learning (e.g. in the classroom).
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
Research methodology carried out in the course of an activity or occupation, typically in the field of education, employed by teachers who wish to improve their approaches and practices.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
A teacher decides to systematically investigate an aspect of his/her practice and take action to change it.
“A form of self-reflective inquiry by participants, undertaken in order to improve understanding of their practices in context with a view to maximizing social justice” (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 162).
Carr W. and Kemmis S. (1986), Becoming critical: Education, knowledge and action research, Falmer Press, London, p. 162.
Source: ECML resource website Action research communities for language teachers (2016-2019)
Refers to an approach that views language learners as social agents who use language to perform tasks in real-life situations. The action-oriented approach focuses on practical communication skills and real-world applications of language, emphasizing the ability to accomplish specific tasks (e.g. making a purchase, or giving directions) rather than just learning grammar or vocabulary in isolation.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“The action-oriented approach and the learner as a social agent”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Fischer Johann, Laurent Rouveyrol, Sawicka Barbara, Zabala-Delgado Julia, CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox,
“Applying the CEFR Companion Volume scale of Mediating concepts”, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), 2023, available at
www.ecml.at/companionvolumetoolbox.
Source: ECML resource website CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox (2020-2022)
An approach to language education focusing on active real-life oriented use of language in learning and teaching as well as in assessment; builds on and goes beyond the communicative approach proposed in the 1970s. An action-oriented approach also takes into account the cognitive, emotional and volitional resources and the full range of abilities specific to and applied by the individual as a social agent (CEFR, 2001: 9)
Council of Europe (2001),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 9,
https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bf.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
This approach views users and learners of a language primarily as ‘social agents’, i.e. members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
Action-oriented tasks are real-life tasks that implies a clear and tangible goal. Learners engaged in an action-oriented task strategically perform actions using their own specific competences to achieve a given result.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
To adapt – without changing the core content – the CEFR descriptors to make them appropriate for a particular context.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
An additional language refers to any language the language learner learns besides his or her mother tongue(s). From a teaching perspective, the term encompasses all the languages used in the learning process, as this formulation “underscores the belief that additional languages are not necessarily inferior or superior nor a replacement for a student’s first language” (Jud, Tan & Walberg, 2011, p. 6).
Judd E., Tan L., Walberg H. (2001), Teaching additional languages, Brussels, International Academy of Education, Belgium.
Source: ECML resource website Fostering the plurilingual wellbeing of language teachers (2024-2026)
Agency is defined as the realised capacity of people to act upon their world and not only to know or give personal intersubjective significance to it and also as the way teachers use power, influence and science to make decisions that affect positive social change (Moore, 2016).
Source: ECML resource website Fostering the plurilingual wellbeing of language teachers (2024-2026)
In sociology and philosophy, agency is the capacity of an entity (a person or other entity, human or any living being in general) to act in any given environment. An agent is an individual engaging with the social structure. Agency may either be classified as unconscious, involuntary behaviour, or purposeful, goal directed activity (intentional action).
Key words
- Act
- Activity / Action
- Engaging with the social structure
- Agent
- Directed activity
Bandura Albert (2001), “Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective”, Annual Review of Psychology, 52, p. 1-26.
Source: ECML resource website Learning environments where modern languages flourish (2016-2019)
Procedures used in alternative assessment include self-assessment, peer-assessment, portfolios, student-teacher conferences, interviews and observation. These can be monolingual or multilingual.
Term in French:
évaluation alternative
Les procédures utilisées dans l’évaluation alternative comprennent l’auto-évaluation, l’évaluation par les pairs, les portfolios, les conférences élèves-enseignant·es, les entretiens et l’observation. Elles peuvent être monolingues ou multilingues.
Source: ECML resource website Mediation in teaching, learning and assessment (2020-2021)
Refers to a situation where a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple possible interpretations or meanings. Ambiguity can be lexical (e.g. a word with multiple meanings) or syntactic (e.g. a sentence structure that can be parsed in different ways).
From a sociocultural perspective, ambiguity refers to situations where language or communication can be interpreted in multiple ways due to cultural, social, or contextual factors. In this view, ambiguity arises not just from linguistic structures (like words with multiple meanings or complex sentences) but also from differences in cultural norms, values, and expectations. For example, a phrase or gesture that is clear in one cultural context may carry different or unclear meanings in another, leading to misunderstandings or multiple interpretations.
Source: ECML resource website CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox (2020-2022)
Analytic discourse allows an action researcher to increase awareness of the important characteristics of a situation. It is usually carried out in a group. The action researcher provides the group with information on the situation and then the group members pose questions to gain a comprehensive understanding of the situation. Critical comments should not be allowed (Feldman, Altrichter, Posch & Somekh, 2018: 100-101).
Feldman A., Alrichter A., Posch P. & Somekh B. (2018), Teachers investigate their work: An introduction to action research across the professions, 3rd edition, Routledge, London, p. 100-101.
Source: ECML resource website Action research communities for language teachers (2016-2019)
Set of principles guiding the educator’s choices. Examples include:
- the “holistic approach”, which views the child’s natural functions in their globality and their complementarity and prioritises activities which allow children to combine the use of speech, the other senses and motor or perceptual functions;
- the “play-oriented approach”, which sees play as crucial to the growth of young children and the development of their abilities, including the development of linguistic competences;
- the “communicative approach”, which posits that the most effective methods for developing competences in a language consist in setting learners communicative tasks which they must perform, alone or in groups, with the educator’s assistance.
Source: ECML resource website European portfolio for pre-primary educators (2012-2015)
A way of tackling language teaching, e.g. through grammar and translation or
through communicative tasks.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
The use of the right word or register in a situation, e.g. familiar terms between friends or formal terms between business associates.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
In the ROADMAP, area refers to the nine thematic aspects which are seen essential in designing and developing a school culture that aims to develop the whole school approach to support language/s of schooling. These areas are partially overlapping, and certainly interrelated. The areas are as follows: Awareness of language dimension, Developing language knowledge and skills, Metalinguistic awareness, Role of languages in learning, Attitudes towards languages, Promoting informal language learning, Language resources at school, Orienting newcomer students and families, and Professional development.
Source: ECML resource website A roadmap for schools to support the language(s) of schooling (2016-2019)
Within the conceptual framework of an action-oriented approach, different aspects of language use need to be defined, taught and analysed, for example fluency, flexibility, coherence, appropriacy, and precision.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Assessment in education is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs to refine programs and improve students’ learning. Assessment data can be obtained from directly examining student work to assessing the achievement of learning outcomes, or can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Assessment is the purposeful gathering of data on student learning for an appropriate administrative or pedagogical purpose. Some assessments are diagnostic and/or formative, aimed at tuning adaptive teaching strategies or offering supportive feedback on written assignments. More formal assessment is likely to be periodic perhaps in the form of an examination or a standardized test. Testing can either be norm – referenced (ranking students) or criterion-referenced (assessing against benchmarks). The purposes of assessment vary, but will include feedback on assignments, verifying learning achievements, meeting certification needs, and ‘gate-keeping’ -- managing the progress of individuals through the system. Assessment cannot, therefore, be a politically or morally neutral activity.
Source: ECML resource website Teaching the language of schooling in the context of diversity (2012-2015)
The measuring of a student’s performance in a course according to the aims and objectives of that course. (see
Achievement)
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)
Assessment is the process of gathering information relating to learning and teaching.
References:
"The assessment of learning is a process which consists of gathering information on learning, making judgements on the information gathered and deciding on the continuation of learning in the light of the initial assessment intention." (Cuq, 2003, p. 90, own translation)
Source:
Cuq J-P. (2003),
Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde, CLE International.
"Assessment in education is based on a process of documentation and systematic use of empirical data relating to knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, with a view to improving teaching programmes and student learning. Assessment data may be obtained either directly from the analysis of learners' work in order to assess their level of achievement of learning objectives, or from data from which hypotheses about the learning process are formulated". (Aalto et al., 2015)
Source:
Aalto E., Auger N., Schnitzer K., Abel A., Gilly D. and Lehtinen A. (2015), Resource website "Teaching the language of schooling in the context of diversity", Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), available at
https://maledive.ecml.at/.
Term in French:
évaluation
L’évaluation est le processus de récolte d’informations en lien avec les apprentissages et l’enseignement.
Source: ECML resource website Resources for assessing the home language competences of migrant pupils (2020-2022)
The use of a task or an activity to allow students the opportunity to use assessment to further their own learning. Self and peer assessments allow students to reflect on their own learning and identify areas of strength and need. These tasks offer students the chance to set their personal goals and advocate for their own learning.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Commonly referred to as formative and/or diagnostic assessments. Assessment for learning is used to check student progress during a unit or block of instruction. Teachers build on the outcomes of this type of assessment to adjust their teaching objectives, practices and classroom instruction to suit the needs of the students. Similarly, students are provided valuable feedback on their own learning.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
A document that articulates the expectations for an assignment, lists the aspects important for successful completion, and describes levels of quality. Rubrics usually contain evaluative criteria, quality definitions for those criteria at particular levels of achievement, and sometimes a scoring system. They are often presented in table format and can be used by teachers when marking, and by students when planning their work.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Commonly referred as summative assessment, assessment of learning is used to measure, record and report on a student’s level of achievement in regards to specific learning expectations. It is generally used at the end of a unit or module.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Communication that allows participants to communicate at different times and does not require immediate responses, such as email or discussion forums.
Source: ECML resource website CEFR Companion Volume implementation toolbox (2020-2022)
Not false or copied; genuine; real. In language education, reflecting genuine situations of language use; may refer to situations as well as texts (spoken or written) and tasks.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Having the freedom and ability to act independently, for example in education. The autonomous language learner takes responsibility for the totality of his/her learning situation. S/He does this by determining his/her own objectives, defining the contents to be learned and the progression of the course, selecting methods and techniques to be used, monitoring this procedure, and evaluating what s/he has acquired.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
Independence. Learner autonomy refers to a student’s ability to set appropriate learning goals and take charge of his or her own learning.
Source: ECML resource website A quality assurance matrix for CEFR use (2016-2019)
The ability to:
- be aware of and understand the learning objectives of a set task as well as its parameters (for example the constraints ensuing from the type of interaction learners engage in);
- define personal objectives (within the institutional framework);
- choose how to implement these learning objectives: working options, activities and resources are selected to create an action plan. This will be supported by:
- evaluating existing knowledge, skills and resources at hand;
- identifying resources to overcome any personal shortfall;
- being able to use these resources (including digital resources) to successfully complete the task at hand ;
- implement this action plan;
- critically assess the process and resources used;
- reflect on how the whole process contributed to the development of autonomy both as language learners to complete the set tasks and as language users to interact in real life.
Source: ECML resource website Digital literacy for the teaching and learning of languages (2016-2018)
A capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making and independent
action, e.g. the learner using own strategies, such as paraphrasing, to get around a lack of specific vocabulary.
Source: ECML resource website ELP implementation support (2004-2007)