Multilingual glossary of key terms in language education

Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals. Instructional scaffolding is a learning process designed to promote a deeper level of learning.

The concept of scaffolding refers to methods used by an adult to support a student’s learning process; this concept was developed in relation to the concept of the “zone of proximal development” by the American psychologist Jerome Bruner who defined it as methods of interacting with a child to support him in his learning until he is able to address the problem on his own.

“Subject-specific language requirements call for scaffolding techniques on a macro level, also called “systemic” scaffolding or “hard” scaffolding. As opposed to scaffolding on a micro level (“soft” or “point-of-need” scaffolding), these techniques are directly associated with the specific curricular goals of a discipline. Thus, language sensitive teachers are able to predict students’ need for support. In contrast, point-of-need techniques of scaffolding require spontaneous supportive action whenever language students are confronted with language obstacles that cannot be anticipated by the teacher when (s)he plans the lesson.” (Beacco et al., 2015)

“The term ‘scaffolding’, as the metaphor implies, refers to structural components in teaching that support learning by offering transitional dependence (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976). It has conceptual links to Vygotsky’s ‘zone of proximal development’, a site where it has a particular usefulness. When the teaching of language is integrated with the teaching of content two opportunities for scaffolding coexist (Gibbons, 2002). Bilingual scaffolding refers to the use of two or more languages in any teaching activities in bilingual classrooms that support learning.”

Scales of descriptor can be:

• user-oriented = describe performances at any given level. They are popularly expressed as ‘I can…’ statements;
• assessor-oriented = provide criteria by which to assess performance. May be third person descriptors, and perhaps using terminology more in keeping with professional understanding of the learning process;
• constructor-oriented = may start from very broad premises, enabling others to build more specific frameworks.

A group which decides to learn together with a particular focus.

A group of people with expertise in relevant areas, here regarding (language) curriculum structuring, implementation and evaluation.

Language of the host country, learned by migrants coming to live in that county.

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If the host country has a colonial past, the second language may be still used in the country’s former colonies in education and/or administration. In France, since the 2000s, the following terms are used:

• language of schooling for newly arrived children and
• learning a second language when referring to adult migrants or immigrants who have been in the country for a long time.

Cf. this definition of “second language” offered by David Crystal:

“A language which is not a person’s mother tongue, but which is learned in order to meet a communicative need. Immigrants commonly learn the language of their host nation as second language. Often a country chooses to give a language official status as a second language, using it as a medium of government, law, education, or the media – a role played, for example, by English or French in many countries of Africa.”

Language other than a child’s first language which he/she must acquire in order to integrate with an environment other than his/her family environment. This second language is usually the main language of socialisation in the context in which the child lives and the one used as the usual language of communication in the institution. Children’s progression in the second language at pre-primary level is illustrated, for example, in the document produced by Nederlandse Taalunie, Framework of reference for early second language acquisition.

Any language acquired other than the L1 or mother tongue.

If we take the example of English as a second or additional language, “In the language education literature this terms tends to be used to refer to the use and teaching and learning of the English language in three contexts: (a) English for immigrant groups and linguistic minority communities in English-speaking countries who may speak their mother tongue at home in their local communities, but use English at school and at work; (b) English when it is widely used within the country but not the first language of the bulk of the population, e.g. in India: and (c) English used by speakers whose first language is not English.”

The concept refers to the acquisition of a second/additional language or the academic study of such processes (…). The study of second language acquisition encompasses basic and applied work on how second language proficiency is gained or lost by children and adults, whether learning naturalistically or with the aid of formal instruction, as individuals or in groups, in foreign, second language, or lingua franca settings (e.g. Doughty & Long, 2005).

Self-assessment is a judgement made by the learner on his or her own performance, knowledge, strategies etc.

A process during which students reflect on and assess the quality of their own work and learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, and identify strengths and weaknesses in their work.

Self-assessment is a judgement made by learners on their own performances, knowledge, strategies etc., imagining how well they would cope in a range of real-life settings.

A process during which students reflect on and assess the quality of their own work and learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, and identify strengths and weaknesses in their work.

A semi-structured interview is a qualitative method of inquiry that combines a pre-determined set of open questions (questions that prompt discussion) with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further.

To arrange something in a particular order with the aim of enhancing students’ learning.

The systematic process of analysing the situation before the curriculum is developed effectively. A thorough analysis of individual as well as collective characteristics in order to optimize the planning of learning and teaching. Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats – so called SWOT analysis – is an example of situation analysis.

The capacity to call upon one’s personal resources, consisting of knowledge, attitudes and skills, to perform a task. In the use of languages, communicative competence draws on linguistic (lexicon and functioning of the language), sociolinguistic (social rules in use of the language) and pragmatic components to perform a communicative task. Communicative competence is therefore based on knowledge about the functioning and use of languages, skills in implementing that knowledge and the capacity to adopt a favourable attitude to communication (e.g. ability to listen, desire to exchange with others, etc.).

See Competence

Social agents are “members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action”. (CEFR, 2001: 9)

The learner as a social agent is considered to act “in the social world and exerts agency in the learning process”; language is seen “as a vehicle for communication rather than as a subject to study”.

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) presents the language user/learner as a “social agent”, acting in the social world, co-constructing meaning in interaction and exerting agency in the learning process. This implies a real paradigm shift in both course planning and teaching, promoting learner engagement and autonomy. Seeing learners as social agents implies involving them in the learning process.

All communication and action takes place within social interactions – relationship(s) linking several people.

Websites that enable web users to contribute and participate in the co-construction of the site (crowdsourcing) or in interactions with other web users.

Combining social and cultural factors; in language learning, for example awareness of level of formality and politeness, register, expressions for particular situations.

The socio-interactional approach places social interactions at the heart of its definition of tasks undertaken by learners. The overall aim is to train learners to take into account these social interactions when they act and interact in the target language. They can then realise how important these interactions are and thus improve their communicative competence. We believe that learners need to undertake tasks where they are exposed to a variety of social interactions (especially real-world tasks) in order to develop a real ability to communicate.

Refers to the conditions for language use in social situations; the ability to use language appropriately in the given social context (level of formality, register, politeness conventions, etc.).

“Specialized language” includes both the specialized vocabulary of a given domain and its most common grammatical structures. Typically, the domains in question (law, medicine, biology, chemistry) correspond to major academic specializations. Consequently, teaching/learning of specialized language tends to be oriented towards students in academic settings, though it may also be of interest to experienced professionals with a specific need to interact in the target language or a more international focus.

This term denotes the communicative context in which individuals’ communicative, linguistic, pragmatic and sociolinguistic competences are called upon to perform communicative tasks (understanding written or oral texts, participating in oral exchanges, drafting a text, etc.). Based on the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, a distinction is drawn between reception activities (oral and written comprehension) and production activities (spoken production, oral interaction, writing independently or in interaction).

See language activities

This term denotes the communicative context in which individuals’ communicative, linguistic, pragmatic and sociolinguistic competences are called upon to perform communicative tasks (understanding written or oral texts, participating in oral exchanges, drafting a text, etc.). Based on the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, a distinction is drawn between reception activities (oral and written comprehension) and production activities (spoken production, oral interaction, writing independently or in interaction).

See Language activities

A stakeholder is anybody who can affect or is affected by an organisation, strategy or project, for example an educational program. They can be internal or external and they can be at senior or junior level.

Stakeholder (who has an interest + who has an effect on others)
A person or organisation with an interest in, or influence over, a programme or project. Pupils, parents, employers, politicians etc, may all have such an interest, in addition to teachers.

The process of making something conform to a standard; making things of the same type have the same basic features. “The process of ensuring that assessors adhere to an agreed procedure and interpret and apply criteria in a consistent and reliable way, for example when teachers are assessing students’ language ability, or when inspectors are visiting an institution” (EAQUALS).

Training for individuals and groups of individuals to improve, and elaborate on, a consistent and shared interpretation and application of the CEFR levels.

A standard is a recognized shared definition used as the basis of comparison. Educational standards are concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education (e.g. by the end of a course, grade level, or grade span) but they do not describe any particular teaching practice, curriculum, or assessment method.

All means that can be adopted to achieve success and to maintain and ensure quality. Means and methods to solve a problem.

Methods more or less consciously utilized by language learners to help them learn a language more effectively. Also, the ability to pursue and persist in learning, to organise one’s own learning, both individually and in groups; includes awareness of one’s own learning process and needs, identifying available opportunities, and the ability to overcome obstacles in order to learn successfully.

A strategy is a long-term plan of action designed to achieve particular goals.

(Learner) Any organised, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by an individual to carry out a task which he or she sets for himself or herself or with which he or she is confronted. For example paraphrase intended meaning to get round lack of specific vocabulary: ‘Make the situation better’ instead of ‘Improve the situation’.

(Implementer) Any organised, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by implementers to secure the adoption and effective use of an ELP whether at national, regional, local or institutional level.

“A [communication] strategy is any organised, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by an individual to carry out a task which he or she sets for himself or herself or with which he or she is confronted.” (CEFR 2001: 10).