Please note: These definitions relate to this specific resource. The same terms may be defined differently in other contexts.
assessment
Assessment is the process of gathering information relating to learning and teaching.
References:
"The assessment of learning is a process which consists of gathering information on learning, making judgements on the information gathered and deciding on the continuation of learning in the light of the initial assessment intention." (Cuq, 2003, p. 90, own translation)
Source :
Cuq J-P. (2003), Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde, CLE International.
"Assessment in education is based on a process of documentation and systematic use of empirical data relating to knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, with a view to improving teaching programmes and student learning. Assessment data may be obtained either directly from the analysis of learners' work in order to assess their level of achievement of learning objectives, or from data from which hypotheses about the learning process are formulated". (Aalto et al., 2015)
Source:
Aalto E., Auger N., Schnitzer K., Abel A., Gilly D. and Lehtinen A. (2015), Resource website "Teaching the language of schooling in the context of diversity", Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), https://maledive.ecml.at/.
Term in French:
évaluation
L’évaluation est le processus de récolte d’informations en lien avec les apprentissages et l’enseignement.
BICS and CALP
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) are concepts that make it possible to distinguish between the ability to communicate with another person (BICS) and the mastery of a language in relation to academic and school standards (CALP). Learners at school are faced with academic standards and expectations relating to the use of languages and subjects. A learner may be able to communicate easily in a language, but this skill does not guarantee mastery of the language needed at school. The challenges of starting to study a school subject presuppose specific norms and uses of language. It takes two years to acquire BICS and six or seven years (or even longer) for CALP. This means that while a learner may be able to talk to friends during breaks, he or she may not have sufficient linguistic ability to follow a history or maths lesson.
Reference:
These two concepts are based on the theory of J. Cummins. BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) refers to interpersonal communication skills. These are used in everyday exchanges which are less cognitively demanding because they are highly contextualised.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to the ability of learners to understand and express, both orally and in writing, concepts and ideas in the relevant academic disciplines. These skills (CALP) are very important for academic success. It is more cognitively costly because it involves metacognitive thinking such as hypothesising, assessing, inferring, generalising, predicting and classifying. Cummins considers that BICS and CALP are developed jointly. It takes two years to develop BICS and six to seven years (or more) to acquire CALP (according to Cummins, 2008).
Source:
Cummins J. (2008), "BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction", in Street B. and Hornberger N.H. (eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, 2nd edition, Volume 2, Literacy, Springer Science + Business Media LLC, pp. 71-83.
________________________________________
Term in French:
BICS et CALP
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) et Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) sont des concepts qui permettent de distinguer la capacité de communication avec une autre personne (BICS) et la maitrise d’une langue en regard de normes académiques et scolaires (CALP). Les élèves en situation scolaire font face à des normes et attentes scolaires liées à l’usage des langues et des disciplines. Si un·e apprenant·e peut facilement échanger dans une langue, cette compétence n’assure pas sa maitrise scolaire. Les enjeux d’entrer dans une discipline scolaire supposent des normes, des usages spécifiques. Il faut compter deux ans pour acquérir les BICS et six/sept ans (ou encore plus) pour les CALP. Ce qui signifie que si l’élève peut parler avec les copains et copines au cours de la récréation, il·elle peut ne pas avoir les moyens linguistiques suffisants pour suivre un cours d’histoire ou de mathématiques.
bilingualism and plurilingualism
Bi- or plurilingualism is the specific ability of a person to communicate in two or more languages, irrespective of their level of proficiency. Today we are not looking at equal proficiency or the sum of (two) monolinguals.
References:
"Bilingualism is the regular use of two or more languages or dialects in everyday life (...) many people who live with two or more languages do not have equivalent, or perfect, knowledge of them since they use their languages in different areas, with different people, for different purposes (...principle of complementarity)" (Grosjean, 2013).
Source:
Grosjean F. (2013), Interview given to the "A bonne école.net" website on Wednesday, 9 January 2013, Interview by Assmaâ Rakho-Mom, www.francoisgrosjean.ch/interviews_2013_fr.html/interviews_2013_fr.html accessed 27 July 2022.
"Bilinguals are not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals; rather, they have a unique and specific linguistic configuration." (Grosjean, 1985, p. 467, own translation)
Original quote:
"the bilingual is not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals; rather, he or she has a unique and specific linguistic configuration". (Grosjean, 1985, p. 467)
Source:
Grosjean F. (1985), "The bilingual as a competent but specific speaker-hearer", Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 6:6, pp. 467-477, DOI: 10.1080/01434632.1985.9994221.
"By bilinguals we mean people who use two or more languages (or dialects) in everyday life. This includes people who have oral proficiency in one language and written proficiency in another, people who speak two languages with different levels of proficiency in each (and who can neither read nor write either), but also, of course, people who have a very good command of two (or more) languages." (Grosjean, 2018, pp. 8-9, own translation)
Source:
Grosjean F., "Être bilingue aujourd'hui", Revue Française de linguistique appliquée, nº 232, 2018, pp. 7-14.
"A person's bilingualism is a dynamic process influenced by life events. The bilingual's linguistic configuration will evolve following major changes such as changes at school, entry into working life, the start of married life, moving house and/or migrating, the loss of a loved one with whom one of the languages was spoken, etc." (Grosjean, 2018, p. 9, own translation).
Source:
Grosjean F. (2018), "Être bilingue aujourd'hui", Revue française de linguistique appliquée, nº 232, 2018, pp. 7-14.
Term in French:
bi-plurilinguisme
Le bi-plurilinguisme est une capacité spécifique d’une personne qui peut communiquer dans deux ou plusieurs langues, quel que soit son niveau de compétence. Actuellement, on n’est plus dans une perspective de maitrise égale et de somme de (deux) monolinguismes.
certificate-based assessment
Certificate-based assessment is a form of summative assessment which results in a certificate or a diploma. It refers to the level expected by an institution and is part of its educational policy. In the case of home languages, assessment has a symbolic and identity-related status and can lead to curricular recognition.
References:
"It guarantees a person's achievements to third parties, in the labour market, or at the end of a course of study; it is awarded at the end of a given course of study." (Mottier Lopez, 2015, p. 21, own translation)
Source:
Mottier-Lopez L., Evaluations formative et certificative des apprentissages, de Boeck, Brussels, 2015, p.&nbps;21.
y
"The assessment is summative when it leads to a certificate or a diploma." (own translation)
Source:
Commission d'enrichissement de la langue française, Vocabulaire de l'éducation et de la recherche - 2022, Délégation générale à la langue française et aux langues de France, 2022, p. 36, www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Agir-pour-les-langues/Moderniser-et-enrichir-la-langue-francaise/Nos-publications/Vocabulaire-de-l-education-et-de-la-recherche-2022, consulted on 27 July 2022.
Term in French:
évaluation certificative
L’évaluation certificative est une forme d’évaluation sommative qui délivre une attestation de formation, un diplôme. Elle se réfère au niveau attendu d’une institution et s’inscrit dans une politique éducative.
Dans le cas des langues familiales, l’évaluation a un statut symbolique, identitaire et peut permettre une reconnaissance curriculaire.
competences
Competences refer to cognitive abilities and aptitudes that are available and can be mobilised in complex situations.
Term in French:
compétences
Les compétences se réfèrent aux capacités et aptitudes cognitives disponibles, pouvant être mobilisées dans des situations complexes.
curriculum
Curriculum is used in a broad sense. It enables learning to be organised at school level.
References:
The curriculum is the body of learning considered to be socially necessary, at a given time and in a given context, which the school us responsible for guaranteeing and organising. (Almeida & Roldão, 2018, p. 7, own translation)
Source :
Almeida S. & Roldão M.C., Gestão Curricular para a autonomia das escolas e professores - Autonomia e flexibilidade curricular, DGE, 2018, p. 7.
The curriculum is a set of learning outcomes. This learning involves knowledge at different levels, more theoretical knowledge, procedural knowledge, but also values, techniques, etc., which society believes it needs in order to survive, and which each of its members must acquire in order to become active participants in society. (Roldão, 2013, p. 131, own translation)
Source:
Roldão M.C. (2013), "Desenvolvimento do currículo e a melhoria de processos e resultados", in Machado J. & Alves J., Melhorar a escola, SAME, pp. 131-140.
"The core curriculum consists of education that is considered basic and essential to anybody: basic because it provides a foundation that subsequent education can build on, as well as mastery of the methodological tools that allow each person to progress in their own learning. These are essential because they equip learners for satisfactory, effective participation in social and cultural life." (Almeida & Roldão, 2018, p. 13)
Source:
Roldão M. C. and Almeida S. De, "Curriculum contextualization in a network of Portuguese schools: a promise or a missed opportunity?", Estudos em Avaliação Educacional, Volume 29, No. 70, 2018, pp. 8-45, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18222/eae.v0ix.4757.
"The curriculum, a concept that is difficult to grasp and whose definition is far from unanimous, will be understood here very broadly as a device for organising learning (...) the path followed by a learner through a sequence of educational experiences, whether or not under the control of an institution." (Beacco et al., 2016, p. 18; cf. also CEFR, point 8.4)
Source:
Beacco J.-C., Byram M., Cavalli M., Coste D., Egli Cuenat M., Goullier F. and Panthier J. (2016), Guide to the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, p. 18, www.coe.int/fr/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education.
"The “educational” curriculum [is] part of an “experiential” and “existential” curriculum, which starts before schooling, develops alongside it, and continues after it. It encompasses all the learning experiences acquired by the individual as a social player in establishing relations with other individuals and groups; these experiences will enable the each individual to develop their personality and identity and, to some extent, their linguistic and cultural repertoire" (Beacco et al., 2016, p. 18; cf. also CEFR, point 1.1).
Source:
Beacco J.-C., Byram M., Cavalli M., Coste D., Egli Cuenat M., Goullier F. and Panthier J. (2016), Guide to the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, www.coe.int/fr/web/language-policy/guide-for-the-development-and-implementation-of-curricula-for-plurilingual-and-intercultural-education.
Term in French:
curriculum
Le curriculum est appréhendé d’une façon large et permet d’organiser les apprentissages au niveau de l’institution scolaire.
diagnostic assessment
Diagnostic assessment is a form of assessment that takes place at the beginning of the learning process and focuses on the learner's prior learning and learning potential. Its aim is to identify learners' knowledge and expectations.
Term in French:
évaluation diagnostique
L’évaluation diagnostique est une forme d’évaluation qui se situe au début du processus et qui se focalise sur l’apprenant en regard de ses acquis antérieurs et de ses potentialités d’apprentissage. Elle a pour but d’identifier les connaissances et les attentes des apprenants.
equity
Equity, or fairness, is both a principle and a value which involves attributing the same importance to everyone and adopting the most appropriate attitude and behaviour regardless of a person's characteristics and social status. It is the driving force behind an inclusive, democratic society that takes account of learners’ own resources.
Reference:
"Equity is about ensuring that there is a concern for fairness, so that the education of all learners is seen to be of equal importance." (Unesco, 2017)
Source:
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) (2017),
A guide to ensuring inclusion and equity in education, p. 13,
www.insieme-ne.ch/documents/GuideONUinclusionetequitedansleducation_259389f_2017.pdf, accessed 27 July 2022.
Term in French:
équité
L’équité est un principe mais aussi une valeur qui consiste à attribuer la même importance à qui que ce soit et à adopter l’attitude et les comportements les plus adéquats quelles que soient les caractéristiques et le positionnement social de la personne. Elle constitue le moteur d’une société inclusive démocratique qui tient compte des ressources des élèves.
formative assessment
Formative assessment is a means of guiding the processes of learning and teaching in relation to the content of the learning programme and learners’ progress. It is a process that involves giving feedback to the learners so that they can assess where they are and make progress. Formative assessment fosters awareness of the advantages and possibilities of plurilingual communication (including language varieties) as well as self-awareness. It encourages enhancement of one's plurilingual repertoire, and thus one’s progress in the development of language skills through contact and/or learning in different learning contexts, both formal and informal.
References:
"Formative assessment is a process of continuous evaluation aimed at guiding pupils in their schoolwork and in identifying their difficulties in order to help them and give them the means to progress in their learning" (Cuq, 2003, pp. 90-91, own translation).
Source:
Cuq J-P. (2003), Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde, CLE International.
"From a "processˮ perspective, formative assessment aims to gather information and data that can be used to give feedback to both the learner and the teacher. However, this feedback is only effective if a number of conditions are met, in particular the fact that the person receiving it is in a position to benefit from it. They must be able to understand it, make it their own and take it into account. To do this, the person receiving the feedback needs to build up an appropriate metalanguage, and needs specific training that leads to effective awareness and, as a result, increased motivation. It's worth repeating that these typologies should be considered as two ends of a continuum, being in fact very complementary". (Piccardo E. et al., 2011, p. 54)
Source:
Piccardo E., Berchoud M., Cignatta T., Mentz O. and Pamula M. (2011), Assessment, learning and teaching pathways through the CEFR, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), www.ecml.at/Resources/ECMLresources/tabid/277/ID/28/Default.aspx.
Formative assessment is assessment "which takes place during learning or training, and which enables the pupil or student to become aware of what they have learnt and the difficulties they have encountered, and to discover for themselves how they can improve." (Bennett, 2011)
Source:
Bennett R. E. (2011), "Formative assessment: a critical review", Assessment in education: Principles, policy & practice, Volume 18, Issue 1, 2011, pp. 5-25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2010.513678.
"The function of formative assessment is to help regulate the teaching and learning in progress; it is used within a school curriculum" (Mottier Lopez, 2015, p. 21, own translation)
Source:
Mottier-Lopez L. (2015),
Évaluations formative et certificative des apprentissages - Enjeux pour l'enseignement, De Boeck.
Term in French:
évaluation formative
L’évaluation formative est en même temps un instrument de formation, qui oriente les processus d’apprentissage et d’enseignement en regard du contenu et de la progression de l’élève. C’est un processus qui suppose des retours à l’apprenant pour qu’il puisse se situer et progresser. L’évaluation formative permet la prise de conscience des atouts et possibilités de la communication plurilingue (y compris les variétés de langue) et de (re)connaissance de soi-même, de valorisation de son répertoire plurilingue, et ainsi progresser dans le développement de compétences en langues, par leur contact et/ou apprentissage dans différents contextes (formels et informels).
home language(s)
Home languages are those used in everyday family life. They may be a minority language, a regional language, a migrant language, a dialect or even (a variety of) a language of schooling. Each involves different issues in terms of the status of the language, the groups involved and the individuals.
Reference:
“Home languages are languages, or varieties of a language, that family members use in their everyday interactions.” (cf. Beacco & Byram, 2007, pp 127-128, own translation)
Source:
Beacco J-C. and Byram M. (2007), De la diversité linguistique à l'éducation plurilingue – Guide pour l'élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
Term in French:
langue (s) de scolarisation
La langue ou les langues officielles utilisées comme langues d’enseignement à l’école. Elles ne sont pas toujours les langues familiales des enfants. Les langues de scolarisation sont des objets d’enseignement (langue comme matière) et des moyens d’enseignement dans les autres disciplines (langues des matières).
inclusion
Inclusion implies the reciprocal and shared participation of the individual within a group. This participation contributes to their success while enabling them to take action (empowerment). It is linked to the values underlying equity.
References:
Inclusion is seen from the point of view of the institution and what it puts in place to build a system that takes everyone's needs into account and is structured accordingly. (Perregaux et al., 2008, p. 96, own translation)
Source :
Perregaux Ch., Changkakoti N., Hutter V. and Gremion M., "L'accueil scolaire d'élèves nouvellement arrivés en Suisse : tensions entre séparation et inclusion", Glottopol, No. 11, 2008, pp. 94-109.
Term in French:
inclusion
L’inclusion est la finalité qui suppose la participation réciproque et partagée de la personne au sein d’un groupe. Cette participation concourt à sa réussite tout en lui permettant d’agir (empowerment ou mise en pouvoir). Elle est liée aux valeurs d’équité.
language activities
Language activities are specific to human beings. Because they are based on language symbols, they are subject to interpretation. They take place in different communicative situations, whether in reception (oral and written comprehension) or in production (oral and written expression). They may be either oral or written. The activities may involve monologue (one person), dialogue (two people) or interaction involving several people at the same time.
References:
"The language learner/user’s communication competence is activated in the performance of the various language activities involving reception, production, interaction or mediation (in particular, interpreting or translating). Each of these types of activity is possible in relation to texts in oral or written form, or both". (CEFR, p. 14)
Source:
Council of Europe (2001),
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, available at
https://rm.coe.int/1680459f9.
"In all human communities, individuals speak, listen, and exchange their ideas or feelings by means of sound sequences produced by the organs of speech; every human being is a speaker, a receiver, but he is also capable of retaining sound messages, reproducing them, translating them, etc. This set of language activities is part of a wider family, that of semiotic activities (drawing, gestures, writing, etc., various other codes). Language activities are generally considered to be the manifestation of an inherent faculty specific to the human species, the language". (Bronckart, 2019, p. 8, own translation)
Source:
Bronckart J.-P. (2019),
Théorie du langage, Mardaga, Bruxelles, p. 8.
Term in French:
activités langagières
Les activités langagières sont spécifiques aux êtres humains. Comme elles sont symboliques, elles font l’objet d’interprétation. Elles se manifestent dans différentes situations de communication en réception (compréhension de l’oral et de l’écrit) ou en production (expression orale et expression écrite). Elles sont produites sous différentes modalités (soit à l’oral, soit à l’écrit). Les activités sont monologales (une personne), dialogales (deux personnes) ou polylogales (plusieurs personnes).
language- or code-switching
Language switching is a way of speaking (typical of bilingual or plurilingual speakers) which involves switching from one language to other languages. It can fulfill a variety of functions, such as ensuring communication. It can be used in the classroom to take advantage of the languages in learners’ repertoires.
Reference:
"Code switching, i.e. dynamic shifts from one language to the other, is one of the most significant features of bilingual speech. Of course, code-switching should not be confused with code-mixing (a communication strategy in which the speaker mixes elements and rules from the two languages), but neither should it be seen solely as a sign of a lack of proficiency in one of the two languages concerned. On the contrary,if used well, it is evidence of a bilingual skill, in the sense of an original, specific and complex skill and not as the combination of two separate linguistic skills". (Causa, 2007, pp. 17-18, own translation)
Source:
Causa M. (2007), "Enseignement bilingue. L'indispensable alternance codique", Le Français dans le Monde, No. 351, May-June 2007, pp. 17-18.
Term in French:
alternance des langues ou alternance codique
L’alternance des langues est un parler (typique des personnes bilingues) caractérisé par le passage d’une langue à d’autres langues. Elle peut remplir différentes fonctions dont, par exemple, assurer la communication. Elle peut être utilisée en classe pour exploiter les langues des répertoires des élèves.
language repertoire
A person's language repertoire comprises all their languages and varieties of languages. It is never stable and is constantly evolving.
References:
"The verbal repertoire is not just made up of verbal forms. It always involves a set of varieties, each with its own internal grammatical structure". (Gumperz, 1964: p. 140)
Source:
"A verbal repertoire then is not simply composed of linguistic forms. It is always a set of varieties, each with its own internal grammatical structure".
(Gumperz, 1964: 140)
Gumperz J. J. (1964), "Linguistic and social interaction in two communities",
American Anthropologist, No. 2, , pp. 137-153,
https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.suppl_3.02a00100, accessed 27 July 2022.
Term in French:
répertoire langagier
Le répertoire langagier regroupe l’ensemble de langues d’une personne et leurs variétés. Il n’est jamais stable et évolue constamment.
language(s) of schooling
The official language or languages used as languages of instruction at school. They are not always the children's home languages. The languages of schooling are the subjects of instruction (language as a subject) and also the means of instruction in other subjects (subject-related languages).
References:
"Languages of schooling embrace two key components:
- languages taught as subjects in their own right (literacy, reading, writing, literature, thinking about language, etc.) → language as a subject
- languages used for the teaching of other subjects (maths, biology, history, geography etc.) → language(s) in other subjects
They are
- national languages in most countries, such as Albanian in Albania or Swedish in Sweden
- regional or minority languages in certain education systems, such as Corsican in Corsica (France) or German in German minority schools in Denmark".
Source:
Council of Europe, Language policies, Languages of schooling, [website],
www.coe.int/en/web/language-policy/languages-of-schooling.
Term in French:
langue (s) de scolarisation
La langue ou les langues officielles utilisées comme langues d’enseignement à l’école. Elles ne sont pas toujours les langues familiales des enfants. Les langues de scolarisation sont des objets d’enseignement (langue comme matière) et des moyens d’enseignement dans les autres disciplines (langues des matières).
linguistic and political ideologies
Linguistic ideologies refer to internalized representations that are considered normal. They bring together a set of beliefs and feelings about the place of language and languages in society. Some of these ideologies support democratic values that are centred on the notion of shared institutional responsibility (see the Council of Europe, for example).
References:
"Ideology (...) is a set of beliefs that are so completely internalised in individual consciousnesses that speakers take them for granted and do not seek to question their foundations" (Boudreau, 2009, p. 440, own translation).
Source:
Boudreau A., "La construction des représentations linguistiques : le cas de l'Acadie", Revue canadienne de linguistique, Vol. 54, no. 3 (November), pp. 439-459, 2009.
"A certain amount of institutional courage is needed to include this orientation in official documents and programmes and to encourage the implementation of innovative practices in the field of linguistic diversity and recognition of the plurilingualism of pupils of all origins." (Armand, 2021, p. 182, own translation)
Source:
Armand F., "L'enseignement du français en contexte de diversité linguistique au Québec : idéologies linguistiques et exemples de pratique en salle de classe", in Potvin M., Magnan M.-O., Larochelle-Audet J. and Ratel J.-L. (eds), La diversité ethnoculturelle, religieuse et linguistique en éducation, Fides education, 2021, p. 182.
"In terms of multilingualism and in relation to "globalisation", it can be said that there is no shortage of language policy options: on one side there is the liberal approach favouring laissez-faire. In opposition to this there is the interventionist approach with two variants which are sometimes combined: a focus on universal linguistic rights and linguistic ecology, which defends the principle of safeguarding linguistic diversity and therefore systematically defending multilingualism, and a focus on identity in favour of the community language. Linguistic nationalism is the most complete example of this. " (Boyer, 2008, p. 71, own translation)
Source:
Boyer H. (2010), "Les politiques linguistiques", Mots – Les langages du politique, 94, DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/mots.19891.
Political ideologies are "autonomous systems of ideas that underlie action and discourse, or even determine them. In other words, ideologies seem to function as underlying structures, which the analyst might set out to unveil." (Costa, 2017, p. 112, own translation)
Source:
Costa J. (2017), "Faut-il se débarrasser des "idéologies linguistiques"?", Langage & Société, pp. 160-161, pp. 111-127.
" To be useful, [the notion of linguistic ideology] as a tool must consider discourse as well as objects and practices, linguistic and extralinguistic resources and how they are constituted as resources, and thus give an account of the link between ideas, actions/objects and political economy." (Costa, 2017, p. 124, own translation)
Source:
Costa J. (2017), "Faut-il se débarrasser des "idéologies linguistiques"?", Langage & Société, No. 160-161, pp. 111-127.
Term in French:
idéologies linguistiques et politiques
Les idéologies linguistiques se réfèrent aux représentations intériorisées considérées comme normales. Elles regroupent un ensemble de croyances et de sentiments à propos de la place du langage et des langues dans la société. Certaines d’entre elles soutiennent des valeurs démocratiques qui mettent au centre la notion de responsabilité institutionnelle partagée (Cf. Conseil de l’Europe, par exemple).
literacy
Literacy is the ability to use a graphic system to produce and interpret written texts in different contexts.
"Following the impetus of New Literacy Studies, the field has been broadened towards a sociolinguistic approach to literacy. This ideological or ecological model (Street 2003; Barton 2007) focuses on everyday literacy practices and events which are part of the dynamics of their use. These do not necessarily correspond to the socially legitimate forms of school writing and are very diverse". (Egli Cuenat, Manno, Desgrippes 2020: 2, own translation)
Reference:
Egli Cuenat M., Manno G., Desgrippes M., "Littératie(s) plurilingue(s) dans le contexte de l'apprentissage et de l'enseignement des langues - des perspectives complémentaires", Bulletin suisse de linguistique appliquée, pp. 1-13, Special issue, 2020.
Term in French:
littératie (ou littéracie)
La littératie est la capacité à utiliser un système graphique et à s’en servir pour produire et interpréter des textes écrits dans différents contextes.
mediation
Human activities always take place in cultural contexts mediated by language and other symbolic systems. The school is a privileged space for mediation that links the cognitive, identity, relational, language and socio-cultural dimensions.
References:
"The term mediation generally refers to a relationship that takes place between people under the guidance of specialist third parties (mediators). More broadly, it can be said that mediation is present from the outset in language as soon as it is accepted that words are not things, even if these words are intended to designate and represent these things". (Cuq, p. 163, own translation)
Source:
Cuq J-P. (2003),
Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde, CLE International.
" Mediation can be defined as any procedure, arrangement or action designed in a given social context to reduce the distance between two (or more) poles of otherness between which there is tension. This tension may be due to the failure of one of the parties to meet the requirements of the other, to incomprehension or ignorance, to conflict or to unfamiliarity with phenomena, content, rules, norms etc." (Coste et al., 2015, p. 27).
Source:
Coste D. and Cavalli M. (2015), Education, mobility and otherness – The mediating functions of schools, Council of Europe,
https://rm.coe.int/education-mobilite-alterite-les-fonctions-de-mediation-de-l-ecole/16807367ef, accessed on 27 July 2022.
Vygotsky and his collaborators in sociocultural theory argue that human activities take place in cultural contexts mediated by language and other symbolic systems (Vygotsky, 1994).
Source:
Vygotsky L. (1994), "Tool and symbol in child development", in Van der Veer R. & Valsiner J. (eds.),
The Vygotsky Reader, Blackwell, London, pp. 99-174.
Term in French:
médiations
Les activités humaines se déroulent toujours dans des contextes culturels médiés par le langage et d’autres systèmes symboliques.
L’école est un espace de médiations privilégié reliant les dimensions cognitive, identitaire, relationnelle, langagière et socioculturelle.
plurilingual and pluricultural competences
Plurilingual and pluricultural skills are the ability to take account of the issues at stake in a given situation by making appropriate use of the language and cultural resources at one's disposal. These two types of resources are separate but interdependent. For example, someone may be able to express themselves perfectly in two languages orally but not be able to do so in both languages with the same proficiency in writing.
References:
Competences refer to the cognitive abilities and aptitudes that are available and can be mobilised to solve certain problems. They involve motivational, volitional and social dispositions and abilities to solve problems responsibly and appropriately, in a variety of situations (according to Perrenoud, 1997).
Source:
Perrenoud P.,
Construire des compétences dès l'école, ESF, Paris, 1997.
"Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social actor has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superimposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the social actor may draw. [...] The profile of language skills may differ from one language to another (for example: excellent oral command of two languages, but effectiveness in writing only one of them, etc.)" (Coste, Moore & Zarate, 2009, p. 11).
Source:
Coste D., Moore D. and Zarate G. (2009), Plurilingual and pluricultural competence, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
The "capacity to successively acquire and use different competences in different languages, at different levels of proficiency and for different functions." (Council of Europe, 2007, p. 116)
"(...) a given individual does not have a collection of distinct and separate
competences to communicate depending on the languages he/she knows, but rather a plurilingual and pluricultural competence encompassing the full range of the languages available to him/her". (CEFR, 2001, p. 168)
Sources:
Beacco Jean-Claude, Byram Michael (2007), From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education: Guide for the development of language education policies in Europe, Main version, Council of Europe, p.–116, available at
https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016802fc1c4, consulted on 27 April 2022.
Council of Europe (2005), European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment, Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 168, available at >a href="https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97" target="blank">https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97.
"Plurilingual and pluricultural competence is the ability to mobilise - in a way that is adapted to the circumstances - the repertoire of language and cultural resources at one's disposal, to interact in contexts characterised by linguistic and/or cultural otherness, and to develop this repertoire." (Candelier, 2012)
Source:
Candelier M. (coordinator) (2012), CARAP: a framework of reference for pluralistic approaches to languages and cultures – Competences and resources, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages), Graz, available at
www.ecml.at/Resources/ECMLresources/tabid/277/ID/20/language/fr-FR/Default.aspx, accessed on 27 April 2022.
Term in French:
compétences plurilingue et pluriculturelle
Les compétences plurilingue et pluriculturelle sont les capacités à tenir compte des enjeux de la situation en mobilisant avec pertinence les ressources langagières et culturelles dont on dispose. Ces deux types de ressources sont séparées mais interdépendantes. Par exemple, quelqu’un peut s’exprimer parfaitement dans deux langues à l’oral mais sans pouvoir le faire dans les deux langues avec la même maitrise à l’écrit.
pluriliteracy
In language teaching, pluriliteracy refers to the ability to mobilise textual skills in a transversal way. It can also mean the ability to use several graphic systems and to use them to produce and interpret written texts in different contexts.
References:
In a plurilingual context, the term refers to the transversal and interdependent development of textual competence and its promotion in a coherent way through the teaching of different languages (according to Cummins, 2000).
Source:
Cummins J. (2000),
Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire, Multilingual Matters, Buffalo.
"Social practices in reading and writing as a continuum between different contexts and conditions of development (family, school, societal) and in various forms (orthographic and graphic), from early learning to the most elaborate aspects, in one or more languages or varieties of languages and in various modalities, including both visual and digital." (Molinié and Moore, 2012, p. 4, own translation)
Source:
Molinié M. and Moore D. (2012), "Les littératies: une Notion en Questions en didactique des langues (NeQ)",
Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures, 9(2).
"Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning (PTL) provides pathways for deep learning across languages, disciplines and cultures by focusing on the development of disciplinary or subject specific literacies. Subject specific literacies are the key to deep learning and the development of transferable skills. Becoming literate in content subjects or topics will empower learners to successfully and appropriately communicate knowledge across cultures and languages."
Source:
Meyer O., Coyle D., Halbach A., Schuck K., Ting T. (2016), A pluriliteracies approach to teaching for learning, Council of Europe (European Centre for Modern Languages),
https://pluriliteracies.ecml.at/Home/tabid/4231/language/en-GB/Default.aspx, accessed on 27 April 2022.
Term in French:
plurilittératie
Dans l’enseignement des langues, la plurilittératie désigne la capacité à mobiliser les compétences textuelles d’une manière transversale.
Elle peut être aussi la capacité à utiliser plusieurs systèmes graphiques et à s’en servir pour produire et interpréter des textes écrits dans différents contextes.
representations
Representations are condensed experiences that trigger interpretations and influence our perception, understanding and action in the world.
References:
"A representation is always an approximation, a way of slicing up reality for a given group according to a given relevance, which omits elements that are not needed and retains those that are suitable for the operations (discursive or otherwise) for which it makes sense. From this point of view, we cannot consider that some representations are better than others. But insofar as they serve as a "compendium of experience" (Kayser, 1997: 7) and provide a framework for exploiting knowledge, they trigger inferences, which guide behaviour. (Moore, 2001, p. 10, own translation)
Source:
Moore D. (2001), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage – Références, modèles, données et méthodes, Éditions Didier, Paris, pp. 7-22).
"The images and conceptions that social actors form of a language, of what its norms, characteristics and status are in relation to other languages, largely influence the procedures and strategies that they develop and use in order to learn and use that language" (Moore, 2001, p. 99, own translation).
Source:
Moore D. (2001), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage – Références, modèles, données et méthodes, Éditions Didier, Paris, pp. 7-22).
"For us, a social representation (SR) is a ready-to-use micro-theory. The function of these micro-theories is to provide interpretations (often under [pressure) which are useful for an activity in progress, whether technical (making a decision in the course of an action) or symbolic (arguing in a discussion). [...] These SRs are part of the knowledge and beliefs that are essential in social life (and especially in communication), in other words, culture. They are not necessarily adhered to by all members of the cultural community in question, but they define likelihoods, which enable them to work out the probable meaning of certain statements. What's more, they are relatively viable, even in - and especially in - the absence of argumentation". (own translation)
Source:
Py B. (2004), "Pour une approche linguistique des représentations", Langages, No. 154, p. 8.
Term in French:
représentations
Les représentations sont des condensés d’expériences qui déclenchent des interprétations et qui influencent notre perception, notre compréhension et notre action dans le monde.
school subjects
School subjects cover a wide range of disciplines (science, mathematics, history, literature, etc.) where natural language, among other things, is used to construct knowledge.
References:
Discipline is "the organisation of knowledge in the school system as a whole, a term which differs according to the language." (Chervel quoted by Schneuwly and Ronveaux, 2021, own translation)
Source:
Schneuwly B. and Ronveaux C. 82021), "Une approche instrumentale de la transposition didactique – Quelques thèses illustrées par l'analyse de l'enseignement de quelques objets de la discipline "françaisˮ, Pratiques, No. 189-190, 2021, pp. 1-20.
"Every school discipline is the result of a continuous process of ‘disciplinisation’: the continual organisation and reorganisation of knowledge and the establishment, the incessant transformation of the ways in which this knowledge is transmitted." (Ronveaux and Schneuwly, 2018, p. 478, own translation)
Source:
Ronveaux C. and Schneuwly B., Lire des textes réputés littéraires : disciplination et sédimentation – Enquête au fil des degrés scolaires en Suisse romande, Peter Lang, Bern, 2018.
Term in French:
disciplines scolaires
Les disciplines scolaires traitent de sujets divers (sciences, mathématiques, histoire, littérature …) et utilisent, entre autres, la langue naturelle pour la construction des connaissances.
summative assessment
Summative assessment focuses on the learning achieved at the end of the process and the results obtained.
References:
"The distinction between the summative and formative roles was first proposed by Scriven (1967) in the context of programme evaluation (Black and Wiliam 2003; Wiliam and Thompson 2008). For Scriven, summative evaluation provided information to judge the overall value of an educational programme "[...] For Bloom (1969, 48), the purpose of formative evaluation was '... to provide feedback and correctives at each stage in the teaching-learning process'. Summative evaluation was employed to judge what the learner had achieved at the end of a course or programme". [...] "today, although the term 'formative assessment' has been substituted to connote a focus on students instead of programmes" (Bennett, 2011, p. 6).
Source:
Bennett R. E. (2011), "Formative assessment: a critical review", Assessment in education: Principles, policy & practice, Volume 18, Issue 1, 2011, pp. 5-25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2010.513678.
"a summative assessment should fulfil its primary purpose of documenting what students know and can do" (Bennett, 2011, p. 7).
Source:
Bennett R. E. (2011), "Formative assessment: a critical review", Assessment in education: Principles, policy & practice, Volume 18, Issue 1, pp. 5-25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2010.513678.
Summative assessment is a form of assessment which generally takes place "at the end of a learning or training process" or of acquisition (in the case of a mother tongue) in order to "assess what has been learned" by learners.
Summative assessment is intended to provide a certificate. In the case of assessing competences in French as a foreign language, this type of assessment can be used for symbolic recognition of these competences and/or for curricular recognition (affecting the students' course of study).
Source:
Commission d'enrichissement de la langue française (2022), Vocabulaire de l'éducation et de la recherche - 2022, Délégation générale à la langue française et aux langues de France, www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Agir-pour-les-langues/Moderniser-et-enrichir-la-langue-francaise/Nos-publications/Vocabulaire-de-l-education-et-de-la-recherche-2022, consulted on 27 July 2022.
Term in French:
évaluation sommative
L’évaluation sommative se concentre sur les apprentissages réalisés à la fin du processus et sur les résultats obtenus.